Statistics Tell The Story: Fathers Matter

In this systematic review of 78 studies on the impact that father-child play has on child development (studies through 2018 on fathers’ play with children aged 0-3 years), researchers identified three key findings:

• Fathers spend a significant proportion of their time with their children engaging in playful interactions, often in the form of physical play such as rough and tumble
• Whilst findings are mixed, on balance the evidence suggests that fathers’ play frequency increases from infancy to preschool age with a subsequent decline in play as children reach early- middle childhood
• Studies investigating links between fathers’ play and child outcomes suggest that fathers’ play in the early years can positively contribute to children’s social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes

This potential for substantial benefit for children provides a clear imperative for policy makers and practitioners to facilitate and support fathers, as well as mothers, in developing more positive and playful interactions with their infants.

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Source: Amodia-Bidakowska, Laverty, C., & Ramchandani, P.G. (2020). Father-child play: A systematic review of its frequency, characteristics and potential impact on children’s development. Developmental Review, 57, 100924.

Researchers tested a model linking economic hardship, single mothers' parenting stress, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and nonresident fathers' involvement in early childhood to behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Using six waves (child birth and ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15) of longitudinal data from a subsample of 800 unmarried Black mothers, nonresident fathers, and their children from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, researchers found that mothers’ economic hardship was associated directly with parenting stress and related both directly and indirectly (through parenting stress) to the children's increased likelihood of exposure to ACEs. Nonresident fathers' involvement early on (child's age 1 to 5) was associated directly with reductions in the mothers' economic hardship, children's reduced exposure to ACEs, and fewer behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Nonresident Black fathers' involvement in single-mother families may buffer the adverse consequences over time for economically and socially disadvantaged Black children of exposure to ACEs in early childhood. Researchers recommended interventions that encourage sustained involvement by nonresident Black fathers with young children and their single mothers.

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Using longitudinal time-diary data of 3,273 children aged 4 to 8 years living with both biological parents from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC), researchers examined whether father-child time (in total time and across activities) was associated with children’s cognitive development and whether that association differed by paternal education. The measure of total father-child time was an estimate of the total number of hours per week that the father spent as the main caregiver of the child. Activity categories consisted of eight activities: educational, routine, unstructured, social, school or kindergarten, structure, sleep, and unknown. Parents chose one or more activities for each 15-minute interval. These time categories added up to 168 hours, or the total number of hours in a week. Researchers measured children’s cognitive ability using a short version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test that measures children’s knowledge of the meanings of spoken words and their receptive vocabulary. The total amount of father-child time was associated with higher levels of children’s cognitive functioning, but the magnitude of the association was small. On the other hand, the amount of father-child time in educational activities, such as reading or educational play, was associated with moderate to large improvements. These associations were similar for highly and less highly educated fathers, indicating that paternal involvement matters for disadvantaged children as much as it does for advantaged children. 

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2013).

Using a sample of 2, 239 families, researchers examined how aspects of father identity (status-level/role-level centrality) and maternal gate opening impacted fathers’ positive engagement (FPE) in diverse residential contexts during early to middle childhood. Researchers found that:

• Maternal gate opening was a protective factor for the association between paternal status-level centrality and FPE, especially for fathers who were nonresident at childbirth
• Among fathers whose residential status shifted from nonresident to resident, however, those with low role-level centrality decreased in FPE over time
• High levels of maternal gate opening were associated with greater FPE for fathers that were residents from birth to middle childhood, although this effect faded over time

Overall, these findings suggest the importance of both establishment of a strong paternal identity and maintenance of maternal support to promote long-term FPE. 

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In this study, researchers used data from the United States National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to evaluate whether consistently measured, modifiable characteristics of parent-adolescent relationships are associated with young adult health across multiple domains. They discovered that:

• Adolescents who reported higher levels of mother-adolescent warmth, communication, time together, academic expectations, relationship or communication satisfaction, and inductive discipline reported significantly higher levels of self-rated general health in young adulthood
• Adolescents who reported higher levels of father-adolescent warmth, communication, time together, academic expectations, and relationship satisfaction also reported significantly higher levels of self-rated general health in young adulthood.
• Adolescents reporting higher levels of all exposures also reported significantly higher levels of optimism and romantic relationship quality in young adulthood and lower levels of stress and depressive symptoms
• Higher levels of parental warmth, time together, and relationship or communication satisfaction were significantly associated with lower levels of nicotine dependence and substance abuse symptoms, as well as lower odds of unintended pregnancy
• Patterns were less consistent for physical violence and alcohol-related injury
• Characteristics of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships were similarly associated with young adult outcomes

The findings suggested that adolescents’ positive perceptions of their relationships with their mothers and fathers are associated with a wide range of favorable outcomes in young adulthood.

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Source: Ford, C.A., Pool, A.C., Kahn, N. F., Jaccard, J., & Halpern, C.T. (2023). Associations between mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships and young adult health. JAMA Network Open, 6(3), e233944.

The experiences of mothers and fathers are different in ways that could affect their well-being. Yet few studies have comprehensively examined gender differences in parents’ well-being. In this study, researchers investigated such gender differences in a large representative sample (Study 1a; N = 13,007), in a community sample using validated well-being measures (Study 1b; N = 472), and in a large experience sampling study measuring happiness during caregiving activities and during interactions with children (Study 2; N = 4,930). Fathers reported:

• Greater happiness, subjective well-being, psychological need satisfaction, and daily uplifts than did men without children (Studies 1a and 1b)
• During caregiving experiences, fathers reported greater happiness, whereas mothers reported lower happiness, compared with their other activities
• Fathers also reported relatively higher happiness when interacting with their children than did mothers (Study 2)

Across all three studies and more than 18,000 participants, parenthood was associated with more positive well-being outcomes for fathers than for mothers. 

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Source: Nelson-Coffey, S. K., Killingsworth, M., Layous, K., Cole, S. W., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2019). Parenthood is associated with greater well-being for fathers than mothers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(9), 1378-1390.

In this study, researchers used data from the United States National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to evaluate whether consistently measured, modifiable characteristics of parent-adolescent relationships are associated with young adult health across multiple domains. They discovered that:

• Adolescents who reported higher levels of mother-adolescent warmth, communication, time together, academic expectations, relationship or communication satisfaction, and inductive discipline reported significantly higher levels of self-rated general health in young adulthood
• Adolescents who reported higher levels of father-adolescent warmth, communication, time together, academic expectations, and relationship satisfaction also reported significantly higher levels of self-rated general health in young adulthood.
• Adolescents reporting higher levels of all exposures also reported significantly higher levels of optimism and romantic relationship quality in young adulthood and lower levels of stress and depressive symptoms
• Higher levels of parental warmth, time together, and relationship or communication satisfaction were significantly associated with lower levels of nicotine dependence and substance abuse symptoms, as well as lower odds of unintended pregnancy
• Patterns were less consistent for physical violence and alcohol-related injury
• Characteristics of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships were similarly associated with young adult outcomes

The findings suggested that adolescents’ positive perceptions of their relationships with their mothers and fathers are associated with a wide range of favorable outcomes in young adulthood.

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Source: Ford, C.A., Pool, A.C., Kahn, N. F., Jaccard, J., & Halpern, C.T. (2023). Associations between mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships and young adult health. JAMA Network Open, 6(3), e233944.

In this review, a researcher highlighted previous research focusing on co-parenting research in resident families, which has burgeoned in the past twenty years. This scoping review integrated findings from the research and provided an overview of supported conclusions, offering access to the research in a manageable and approachable form. Research evidence demonstrated how the characteristics of each parent, the state of their romantic relationship, the contexts in which they resided, and their child’s characteristics all influenced how they functioned as a co-parental team. Positive co-parenting, in turn, lead to better marital relationships, greater parental well-being, more paternal involvement, and positive children’s development. Implications of these findings for practitioners and suggested areas of research were also discussed.

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Source: Campbell, C. G. (2022). Two decades of coparenting research: A scoping review. Marriage & Family Review, 59(4), 1-33..

Researchers explored whether co-parenting closeness could partially explain the relationship between fathers’ perceptions of maternal gatekeeping and change in couple adjustment among new fathers. The results showed that fathers’ perceptions of change in co-parenting closeness from 3 to 6 months after birth partially explained fathers’ perceptions of maternal gatekeeping at 3 months and relative change in couple adjustment from the third trimester to 9 months postpartum. More specifically, these results indicated that greater perceived maternal gate opening was linked to higher levels of couple adjustment, whereas greater levels of maternal gatekeeping was linked to lower levels of couple adjustment and co-parenting closeness.

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Source: Olsavsky, A. L., Yan, J., Schoppe‐Sullivan, S. J., & Kamp Dush, C. M. (2019). New fathers’ perceptions of dyadic adjustment: The roles of maternal gatekeeping and coparenting closeness. Family Process, 59(2), 571-585. 

Researchers explored factors influencing paternal involvement at 6 months postpartum and detailed the trend of these factors over a period of 6 months. Researchers recruited a total of 201 married participants from a local hospital. Results indicated that: 

• Parenting self‐efficacy at 6 months postpartum, paternal involvement, and paternal postnatal depression on the day of wife’s hospital discharge, wife in paid work, and wife's antenatal class attendance significantly influenced paternal involvement at 6 months postpartum
• A sub‐analysis of first‐time and experienced fathers revealed that parenting self‐efficacy at 6 months postpartum, paternal involvement on the day of the wife's hospital discharge, and wife in paid work were significant factors influencing paternal involvement for first‐time fathers
• Significant factors influencing paternal involvement for experienced fathers were paternal involvement on the day of the wife's hospital discharge and the wife's antenatal class attendance
• Fathers (first‐time and experienced) who were involved during their infant's birth were also involved at 6‐month postpartum

Findings suggested that healthcare professionals may encourage paternal involvement by teaching fathers infant care skills during the antenatal period, especially first‐time fathers as they may be lacking in such skills, which may hinder their parenting satisfaction. Paternal involvement throughout the perinatal period can be enforced by healthcare professionals to promote paternal involvement.

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Source: Shorey, S., Ang, L., Goh, E. C., & Gandhi, M. (2019). Factors influencing paternal involvement during infancy: a prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 75(2), 357-367. 

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, researchers explored the relationships between stepfathers’ closeness and active engagement and youth’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors and school connectedness at ages 9 and 15 for between 550 and 740 children (depending on the wave) with stepfathers. Results suggested that the emotional tenor of the relationship and level of active engagement between youth and their stepfathers were associated with reduced internalizing behaviors and higher school connectedness. Findings suggested that stepfathers’ roles seem to have evolved in ways that are more beneficial to their adolescent stepchildren than was previously the case. 

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In this comprehensive review of the shared reading literature, researchers considered the largely undocumented extent and nature of parental sex differences. They suggested that mothers and fathers are likely to differ in quality of reading and linguistic exchanges with their sons and daughters. They found that during shared reading fathers interact with their children differently. Fathers ask more open-ended questions, a practice that challenges children’s thinking and expands their language skills. Fathers’ conversations with their children are also more conversationally challenging for their children.

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Source: Cutler, L., & Palkovitz. (2020). Fathers’ shared book reading experiences: Common behaviors, frequency, predictive factors, and developmental outcomes. Marriage & Family Review, 56(2): 144-173.

Nonresident fathers have the task of negotiating childrearing responsibilities while residing away from their children. In this pilot study, researchers tested a mediation model with a sample of Black fathers who reported co-parenting a nonresident child or children with only one mother (N = 80). The proposed mediation model tested two hypotheses: (1) co-parenting relationship and co-parenting support, respectively, each has a direct effect on paternal stressors, and (2) the effects of co-parenting relationship and co-parenting support on fathers’ paternal stressors are mediated through maternal gatekeeping behaviors. Findings indicated that cooperative co-parenting lessened parental stressors such as concerns about role functions and concerns about children’s behavior in the presence of controlling maternal gatekeeping behaviors

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Researchers examined the prevalence of nonresident social fathering among African American youth from single-mother families and their reports of subjective closeness, frequency of contact, and financial support from social fathers during young adulthood. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 728), researchers documented the share of youth who had a nonresident social father serve as their main father figure and examined key indicators of their long-term relationships with these men: closeness, contact, and receipt of financial support during young adulthood. In addition, the relationship type with social fathers differed by type (stepfather versus male relative) and from those with biological fathers. Nearly 70% of adult children reported strong feelings of closeness and regular contact with social fathers. Over 40% received financial assistance. Adult children were more likely to report feeling closer to a social than a biological father; there were no other differences by father figure type. Most African American young adults from single-mother families have close and consistent ties with a nonresident father figure. While underexplored, their sustained engagement with these men may have positive implications for their downstream outcomes.

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The absence of a biological father contributed to increased risk of child maltreatment.

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Source: Bendheim-Thomas Center for Research on Child Wellbeing and Social Indicators Survey Center. (2010). CPS involvement in families with social fathers. Fragile Families Research Brief, 46. Princeton, NJ and New York, NY: Bendheim-Thomas Center for Research on Child Wellbeing and Social Indicators Survey Center.

Positive forms of father involvement (involvement in child-related activities, engagement in multiple forms of involvement and developing a positive father-child relationship) were associated with children’s social and emotional well-being as well as behavioral adjustment and academic achievement.

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Source: Adamsons, K., & Johnson, S. K. (2013). An updated and expanded meta-analysis of nonresident fathering and child well-being. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 589-599.

The lowest achievement and the highest risk of school failure and course failure were experienced by adolescents who did not have a resident father figure and didn’t know the identity of their fathers.

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Source: Whitney, S., Prewett, S., Wang, Ze, & Haigin C. (2017). Fathers’ importance in adolescents’ academic achievement. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 8(3–4), 101–126.

Researchers used secondary data in a sample of 835 juvenile male inmates from the Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research to examine gun carrying and drug trafficking in young men, linking father absence to the likelihood of engaging in these behaviors. They found that father absence was the only disadvantage on the individual level with significant effects on gun carrying, drug trafficking, and co-occurring behavior. They found that individuals from father absent homes were 279% more likely to carry guns and deal drugs than peers who lived with their fathers.

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Source: Allen, A. N., & Lo, C. C. (2012). Drugs, guns, and disadvantaged youths: Co-occurring behavior and the code of the street. Crime & Delinquency, 58(6), 932-953.

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, researchers examined the association between maternal parenting stress, mother-father relationship status, and fathers’ participation in parenting in terms of engagement, sharing in child-related chores, and cooperative coparenting. They found that fathers’ engagement with children and sharing in child-related chores were negatively associated with maternal parenting stress while cooperative coparenting had a spurious relationship with maternal parenting stress. They also found little variation in these associations by mother-father relationship status suggesting that fathers’ participation in parenting was important for both mothers and children even if the mother-father relationship had ended.

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Source: Nomaguchi, K., Brown, S., & Leyman, T. (2017). Fathers’ participation in parenting and maternal parenting stress: Variation by relationship status. Journal of Family Issues, 38, 1132-1156.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 19.5 million children, more than 1 in 4, live without a father in the home.

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (2018). Living arrangements of children under 18 years old: 1960 to present. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau.

Depression and delinquency scores were much higher among the portion of adolescent respondents who reported having a father that had, at some point, been incarcerated.

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Source: Swisher, R. R., & Shaw-Smith, U. (2015). Paternal Incarceration and adolescent well-being: Life course contingencies and other moderators. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 104(4), 929-959.

In 2011, children living in female-headed homes with no spouse present had a poverty rate of 47.6%. This was over four times the rate for children living in married-couple families.

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Source: U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (2012). Information on poverty and income statistics: A summary of 2012 current population survey data. Retrieved from: http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/12/PovertyAndIncomeEst/ib.cfm

Men who grew up with absent fathers were more likely to become absent fathers. They also found that women who grew up with absent fathers are more likely to have children with absent fathers.

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Source: Pougnet, E., Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., Ledingham, J. E., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2012). The intergenerational continuity of fathers’ absence in a socioeconomically disadvantaged sample. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(3), 540-555.

Men who grew up with absent fathers were more likely to become absent fathers. They also found that women who grew up with absent fathers are more likely to have children with absent fathers.

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Source: Pougnet, E., Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., Ledingham, J. E., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2012). The intergenerational continuity of fathers’ absence in a socioeconomically disadvantaged sample. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(3), 540-555.

Father involvement seems to reduce the occurrence of behavioral problems in boys and psychological problems in young women, as well as enhancing cognitive development, while decreasing delinquency and economic disadvantage in low-income families.

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Source: Sarkadi, A., Kristiansson, R., Oberklaid, F., & Bremberg, S. (2008). Fathers’ involvement and children’s developmental outcomes: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. Acta Paediatrica, 97, 153–158.

Father absence increased the risk of infant mortality, and that the mortality rate for infants within the first 28 days of life is four times higher for those with absent fathers than those with involved fathers.

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Source: Alio, A. P., Mbah, A. K., Kornosky, J. L., Wathington, D., Marty, P. J., & Salihu, H. M. (2011). Assessing the impact of paternal involvement on Racial/Ethnic disparities in infant mortality rates. Journal of Community Health, 36(1), 63-68.